The call for sustainability of agricultural systems and global food security has increasingly become significant following the growing adverse environmental, ecological, social, and economic impact on food systems (Béné et al. 2019). Aging farming community is reported to be another threat to agricultural sustainability in some countries such as Republic of Korea (O’Shaughnessy et al. 2021). Therefore, smart farming is well-thought-out to potentially improve the sustainability of agri-food system, ecological system, mitigating greenhouse gas emission, and sustaining the techno-enviro-economic development while meeting growing demand for food. Smart farming, a self-automated farming system also known as digital farming, is a farming system that applies a combination of advanced technological elements such as electronics, fog computing with agricultural machinery, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAVs), Big data analytics, Geo positioning system (GPS), geographic information system (GIS) technology, Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) and data software tools such as Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), robotics, and satellite imagery to collect real time data at much higher resolution. The technological elements are applied to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of crops and livestock management systems. The smart farming concept involves monitoring the living conditions of crops and livestock in real time, using precise data on crop growth and environmental conditions. The system has progressed to become more digital and self-automated over time through the integration of science and engineering in agriculture, innovation, and technology development (Mukherjee et al. 2022).

The primary goal of smart farming is to sustain agricultural production through resource optimization (Land, water, labor, chemicals), by paving a way for transformational change in the agricultural innovation system (AIS), integrating technology and automation of agricultural production while creating a resilient landscape for agriculture, people, land, nature and climate as indicated in Fig. 1. These measures aim at improving the efficiency and effectiveness of the production system and quality of agricultural products. As a result, smart farming sustains feeding the world’s growing population since the integration of AI, IoT, and the mobile internet in the farming system can provide a realistic agricultural production solutions to match food production with population growth (Rehman et al. 2022).

Figure 1. Key driving factors associated with technology advancement and agricultural sustainability

World population is expected to reach 9.1 billion by 2050, indicating 34% greater than the current population. This expeditious population growth is expected to continue with most population increases likely to happen in economically developing nations and approximately 70% of the world’s population predictable to be staying in urban parts of the world (in comparison with the current 49%) by 2050 (Hoornweg and Pope 2016). This upward trend can lead to food shortage, as arable land continues to decrease. To feed this large, more urban, and rich population, Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations (UNFAO) indicates the need for an increase in food production by 70% while ensuring environmental sustainability (Premanandh 2011). Additionally, several other global concerns such as continuous climatic changes, depleting natural resource and rain forest biome are exerting burdens to agricultural sustainability and food systems, which poses threats between the sustainable food supply and demand. Besides, the eating habits are becoming more sophisticated and diverse, and as food consumption patterns change, farming system needs to be optimized for growing a diversity of crops such as high-value special crops. Furthermore, under livestock production, of the 12% of the gross energy consumed, 2% is converted to enteric methane during ruminant digestion, this contributes approximately 6% of global anthropogenic gas (greenhouse gas) emission which contributes to global warming (Angela et al. 2000).

Smart farming presents farming system that respond to the changing food consumption patterns, provide an environmentally sustaining and cost-effective way of managing livestock as well as mitigating the greenhouse gas emission while meeting consumer demand for agricultural products. Many countries are adopting to smart farms as modes of production, however, the application of smart farming concepts varies from country to country (Tao et al. 2021). Application and adoption to smart farming solutions for sustainability of agricultural system depend on numerous factors in each country, these factors include; Government priorities, advanced technologies, presence of natural resources, available skills and abilities to enact more sophisticated and effective agricultural processes, cost effectiveness of agricultural systems, available safer and more efficient operating conditions for the environment and stakeholder in the agricultural value chain (that involvers farmers, agricultural professionals, engineers, researchers, legislators, and so on), available policies and strategies and effective collaborations (Gontard et al. 2018). Existing advancement of ICT such as fog computing, electronics and IOT, combines the other advanced technologies such as computational intelligence, Robotics, Big data, and so on, are significant in the fourth stage of agricultural revolution. Therefore, the aim of adopting smart farm technologies in every country is linked to making farming system more planned, effective, predictive, and efficient so as to meet growing demand for food. Smart farming provides farmers with a data driven plan to help them execute their farming progress (Saiz-Rubio and Rovira-Más 2020). Smart farming interventions have been implemented by many countries including Republic of Uganda and Republic of Korea.

Republic of Uganda is known of having good natural resources that contributes to agricultural systems (Hartter and Ryan 2010), while Republic of Korea is known of advanced technological system that enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of agricultural systems (Lim and Jung 2019), in addition, Republic of Uganda has an annual 3.4% population increase and is the second youngest country in the world (Mukwaya et al. 2012) while Republic of Korea has an aging farming community (Lee et al. 2021). Annual population increase and increasing percentage of young society in Republic of Uganda and aging farming community in Republic of Korea pose a food insecurity challenge in the respective countries. To enhance food security while ensuring agricultural sustainability, both countries are incorporating smart farming systems in their agricultural interventions. In addition, with the aim of advancing the global development agenda, several countries, including The Government of Republic of Uganda and Republic of Korea, have entered partnership agreements that enhance sustainable development. This has globalized the need to improve and sustain agricultural systems and achieve food security. Since the potential impact of smart farming solutions across countries is less known, this paper, comprehensively analyses the role of smart farming solutions in sustaining agricultural production in the context of comparing an emergent country (Republic of Uganda) and a developed country (Republic of Korea) by scrutinizing each country’s agricultural assets, natural resources, approaches, technologies, policy interventions, available opportunities, achievements, challenges encountered, reasons underlying smart farm pursuit, and how smart farming technologies could shape the sustainability of agriculture in Republic of Uganda and Republic of Korea.

Although ample efforts to emphasize on the role of smart farming in agricultural systems has been brought forward, most previous published data either did not deliver enough insight or have only focused on smart farming without internalizing deeper into the differences in the implementation of smart farms between different countries.

Therefore, this review is of requirement to present distinct smart farming approaches, technologies, policy interventions, available opportunities, achievements, challenges encountered, reasons underlying the pursuit and impacts of smart farming solutions between Republic of Uganda and Republic of Korea. Since it is the first time a comparative analysis of smart farming system between an emergent country (Republic of Uganda) in Africa and a developed country (Republic of Korea) in Asia, the review would help to guide collaboration of the two countries while benchmarking on the presented literature about smart farming development in the two countries. The review would as well advance the potential of the smart farming system in countering farming challenges in the two countries, Africa and worldwide.

This review provide accurate insight on:

• Available resources in the two countries

• Challenges in agricultural production

• Approaches and smart farming equipment employed by two countries to enhance sustainable agricultural production

• Available policies, advances and strategies in the implementing of smart farms

• Smart farming solution in mitigating Green House Gas (GHG) emission

• Contribution of Smart Farming

• Challenges encountered in developing smart farming in the two countries

• Key issues in data security and privacy management with key recommendations to ensure proper management of data in the smart farm

• Limitations and operational recommendations in smart farming.

The exploration of each of the nine insights unfolds the reasoning of each country’s approach to smart farming strategies and solutions. Therefore, the review outlines vital information that guides the growth of smart-farm solutions which will guide the development of smart farms globally.

Literature Search

We used literature survey, searching for information from original peer -reviewed articles published in scientific journals, and collecting agricultural data from news articles, country reports, and books majoring on smart farming in Republic of Korea and Republic of Uganda published in English to get the required data. The relevant data were retrieved using Google Scholar, Scopus, and Library electronic database by searching using keywords “Smart Farming,” “Digital farming,” “Precision farming”, Agricultural sustainability”, “IoT, and smart phone application in agriculture”, “Agricultural transformation, Management of Green House Gases”, and “Technologies in farming” in conjunction with Republic of Korea and Republic of Uganda. Although this study was restricted to Republic of Korea and Republic of Uganda, the search was open-ended concerning the scope of the subject. The obtained papers contained relevant literature, such as authors, titles, keywords, abstract text, countries, institutions, journals, and cited references. Data collection and gathering focused on the comparison of smart farming approaches, technology development, opportunities, and challenges to smart farm solutions between Republic of Korea and Republic of Uganda as well as the history and origin of smart farm development in the two countries. More data were obtained regarding each country’s policies and strategies, and perception of the pursuit of smart farming solutions. This article describes the positive and potential negative impacts of the two different approaches of mart farm development pursued by Republic of Korea and Republic of Uganda as well as recommendations for adopting smart farming for an improved agricultural and foods systems and food security in consideration with ecosystem and ecological stability. The review was based on a descriptive analysis where data based on each country’s information regarding smart farm development were presented.

Current farming information, arable land use, farm acreage, and major crops and animals

The Republic of Korea, which is the 22^nd smallest country in Asia, has a total land area of 100,339 km², and a total coastline of 2,413 km, with a climate comprising spring, summer, autumn, and winter seasons. It is dominated by forests and mountains where by 58.89% of the area land is covered by forests and 70% of the forested area being mountainous. Agriculture accounts for approximately 20% of Republic of Korea’s land area with two-thirds of the arable land managed as paddy fields, primarily involving cultivation of rice. Currently, plastics, clear vinyl greenhouses are a common feature in the Republic of Korean scenery, protecting vegetables and fruits from harsh conditions like wind, storm and cold. In addition, green houses prolong growing period of vegetable and fruits (Jeong et al. 2021). The farming population has reduced in Republic of Korea. In 1970, the agricultural sector employed approximately 50% of rural population (Keim 1974). In contrast, in 2021, approximately 4.83% of the population was actively employed in the agricultural sector. This decline has also been reflected in the age of the population involved in agriculture. In 1970, more than 35% of people in the age range of 20 and 30 involved in agricultural systems in comparison with the 15.2% of people above 60 years of age. By 2018, more than 60% of farmers in Republic of Korea were aged 65 years or older (Seok et al. 2018). Republic of Korea farming system is dominated by family farm structures that majorly produce rice. Additional crops produced include barley, millet, corn, sorghum, potatoes, buckwheat), cotton, fruits, and vegetables (pears, grapes, mandarin oranges, apples, peaches, Welsh onions, Chinese cabbage, red peppers, persimmons, cabbage, and radishes, hemp, sesame and tobacco (Islam et al. 2020; Lee et al. 2016a)(Fig. 2). indicates major crops grown in Republic of Korea. Major of livestock managed in Republic of Korea are: Cattle, Pigs, Poultry and Rabbits, with the most consumed livestock products being Beef, Pork, Chicken, Fish, Duck, Raw beef, Raw chicken, Raw liver, Small intestine, Chicken gizzard and Milk (Nam et al. 2010). In 2017, 16% of the total land area of Republic of Korea was farms, having average farm size of 1.6 ha. However, Republic of Korea relies on imports to fulfill its food needs, and over recent years, Republic of Korea has continued to be a significant destination for U.S. agricultural exports, making the United States the top supplier of agricultural products to Republic of Korea, with a substantial market share of around 30% (Kim and Tromp 2024). Under an agreement of United States- Republic of Korea Free Trade Agreement (KORUS), Republic of Korea government removed tariffs on most of U.S. agricultural exports. The major agricultural products exported from the U.S. to Republic of Korea include corn, wheat, soybeans, fresh fruits, beef, beef products, dry products, and soybean oil (Konduru et al. 2014). The agricultural sector’s contribution to Republic of Korea’s GDP has continued to decline. In 2011, Agriculture contributed 2.21% of GDP; by 2021, the contribution had dropped to 1.79% (Morales-López et al. 2023).

Figure 2. Major crops grown in Republic of Republic of Korea (Lee et al. 2016a)

Republic of Uganda, popularly known as ‘The Pearl of Africa’, is a landlocked country situated on the equator in East Africa. According to National Forestry Authority (NFA), arable land covers approximately 43% of over-all land cover in Republic of Uganda with 1% registered increase of arable land per annum (Mwanjalolo et al. 2018). However, if the increasing rate of arable land remains constant, by 2040, Republic of Uganda’s arable land will account for 90%. Farming in Republic of Uganda, that predominantly depends on rain, serves as the dominant economic activity for majority of households, encompassing approximately 80% of all households in the country. Republic of Uganda is dominated by small-scale farms who own approximately 1.3 hectare per household. However, 67% of the agricultural households have holdings of less than 1 ha, and only 13% have more than 2 ha;. households often cultivate land parcels larger than their officially recognized land rights (Mukuve and Fenner 2015). UNFOA indicates that, fertile soil in Republic of Uganda has the potential to feed 200 million people. That indicates the contribution of agriculture to Republic of Uganda. In the Financial year 2019/2020, the agricultural sector contributed 23.7 of gross domestic product (GDP) and 33% of export earnings. This is largely attributed to farming (food crops and livestock) productivity (Milton and Robert 2019). Republic of Uganda’s 11 farming systems (as indicated in Fig. 3, produce a vast assortment of agricultural products ranging from crops to livestock with commonly grown crops being maize, beans, and cassava. Other crops include bananas, coffee, sweet potatoes, rice, soya beans, coffee, and Irish potatoes. Major crops grown in Republic of Uganda are as indicated in Fig. 4 (Otaiko 2021). The most popular livestock include cattle, goats, poultry rabbits, bee keeping and fisheries. Family labor contributes 99.1% of livestock keeping labor, and livestock kept are majorly characterized by local breeds (Waaswa and Satognon 2020). Republic of Uganda is the leading producer of fresh and succulent fruits and vegetables in East Africa and second in Sub-Saharan Africa after Nigeria. Approximately 5.3 tons of fruits and vegetables are produced per annum, with pineapple, avocados, oranges, pawpaw, jack fruits, mangoes, passion fruits, Asian vegetables, tomatoes, onions, eggplants, and carrots registered as the most grown fruits and vegetables (Wakholi et al. 2015). Republic of Uganda practices organic farming in its agricultural system. It is one of the leading African countries that produces and exports organic products to the EU, the US, Japan, and other countries, contributing approximately USD 291.2 million per year. Majority of exported organic products include coffee, cocoa, sesame, fruit (fresh and dried), vanilla, and shear nuts (Bendjebbar and Fouilleux 2022).

Figure 3. Farming system in Republic of Uganda (Ruecker 2003)

Figure 4. Major crops grown in Republic of Uganda (Wichern et al. 2017)

Existing water sources

Republic of Korea has an average annual precipitation of 1244 mm, that is approximately 124.0 billion m³ of water capacity. Approximately, 58% (72.3 billion m³) of the 124.0 billion m³ of water is indicated as run off. The runoff is discharged to rivers and streams. Whereas, 51.7 billion m³ of water evaporates directly, 33.7 billion m³ of water is estimated to be the over-all existing surface groundwater. This water includes the 20.1 billion m³ of river flows during the non-flood season, 17.7 billion m³ of stored water in multipurpose dams and agricultural reservoirs, and 3.7 billion m³ of groundwater (Jung et al. 2011)(Fig. 5). indicates sources of irrigation water in Republic of Korea and Republic of Uganda. However, the economic growth of Republic of Korea has been accompanied by an increase in the overall water demand for industries and agriculture, this has contributed towards the country’s water stress. Therefore, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development indicates Republic of Korea being one of the most water-stressed countries with very low availability of water per capita. Han, Geum, Nakdong, and Yeongsan/Seomjin river basins are registered to hotspots for high risk of scarcity. Because natural lakes in Republic of Korea are limited in number and are generally quite small, reservoirs and regulated rivers are the main sources of freshwater for the community of Republic of Korea (Kim et al. 2001).

Figure 5. Sourcing of irrigation water in Republic of Korea and Republic of Uganda (Mwaura and Muwanika 2018; Nam et al. 2015)

Republic of Korea established about 18000 water reservoirs to particularly support household with water use (Kim et al. 2001). Over 61% of water use associated with agriculture was recorded in 2014. Furthermore, water for household use accounts for 30%, and 9% goes to industrial use (Gruere et al. 2020). April, May and June are months of high water demand due to severe drought and water scarcity in spring, while October shows low water demands (Wang et al. 2007). To counter the challenge of constant water scarcity, the government of Republic of Korean government has constructed water reservoirs and has in addition been involved in water transfer between basins. Water usage in Republic of Korea and Republic of Uganda and are as indicated in Fig. 6.

Figure 6. Water usage in Republic of Korea and Republic of Uganda (Kilimani 2013; Kim et al. 2018)

Republic of Uganda has a total area of more than 241550.7 km² with approximately one-third of the total area covered by freshwater. Her primary freshwater reservoirs are Lakes Victoria, Albert, Kyoga, George, and Edward. The interconnected river system linking these lakes include: Nile River being the longest river in Africa, Katonga River, Kafu River among others. There Nile River flows through 12 countries and originates from Lake Victoria (Onyutha et al. 2021). The available water sources also contribute to agriculture through irrigation schemes, fisheries, and aquaculture. Republic of Uganda is also gifted with two rain distributions annually, with rain from March to May being longer than rain from September to November. These longer rains benefit most parts of the country, since most of Republic of Uganda’s farming systems primarily depends on rain (Turyahabwe et al. 2013). Republic of Uganda’s annual precipitation is approximately 1133 mm, and a higher evaporation rate is recorded, resulting in a negative influence on precipitation formation, air temperature and atmospheric circulation that leads to reduced soil moisture (Ngoma et al. 2021). Recently, there has been increasing uncertainty regarding rainfall with supplementary irrigation required during the rainy season. At times, simple irrigations have been practiced by smallholder farmers, mainly using bottle and drip irrigation, watering cans, and use of treadle pumps. The prevalence of irrigation practices among the farming community is still low, with less than 1% of farmers in Republic of Uganda involved in the irrigation of their production systems, despite the high losses associated with unreliable rainfall. Main sources of water for irrigation include rivers, shallow wells, harvesting, and reservoirs. The development and adoption of irrigation practices has been slow in Republic of Uganda and primarily involves traditional schemes. Out of 9.2 million ha of the total cultivated area in Republic of Uganda, only 8716 ha is irrigated. The major crops grown under irrigation conditions are paddy rice, vegetables, and greenhouse irrigation. Although the government of Republic of Uganda is interested in establishing irrigation systems, there is limited study on best intervention farmers can adopt and the environment that can lead to an increased uptake and sustainability of irrigation systems (Mwaura and Muwanika 2018).

Challenges in agricultural production system

In both Republic of Korea and Republic of Uganda the agricultural sector continues to be hindered from realizing its full potential. Common constraints to agricultural development in the two countries include low technology adoption, poor compliance to adopting to policies that reduce the carbon foot prints created by agriculture production system and sustaining food security amidst climatic changes. Below are some of the identified challenges:

1) Low technology adoption

Despite Republic of Korea’s efforts in embracing smart farming systems, many farmers still partially use conventional farming systems. Republic of Korea and other Asian countries seem to face different barriers to the development of agricultural technology, the interest of farmers to transition to the use of modern agriculture is still low. Besides, technology companies are still stuck with approaches of subsidies without entrepreneurship which has influenced the onset of the smallholder farmer syndrome, this therefore seems unsustainable for handling global food insecurity issues (Lee et al. 2016b). In other words, Republic of Korea faces a few technological challenges as compared to Republic of Uganda.

Technological improvements provides a degree of confidence in the sustainable development of agriculture. With the aim of eradicating poverty, Republic of Uganda unveiled a plan for the modernization of agriculture (PMA) under the Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP) as a holistic programme capable of transforming small scale subsistence farming to market-based production systems and adopting technologies (time-saving equipment, modern seeds, and so on) as the key drivers of agricultural sector development (Bahiigwa et al. 2005). Regardless of the efforts invested in technology development, Republic of Uganda remains one of the least mechanized countries in the world (Van Campenhout et al. 2021). Agricultural sector growth has been insufficient and has been undermined by poor technological development and the low adoption of technologies, this has persisted in the poor agricultural systems of smallholder farmers who are largely concentrated in rural areas, this therefore position farmers as potential targets to food insecurity. The low adoption of technologies is attributed to farmers’ limited knowledge on the benefits of new technologies, the technology availability when needed, and the profitability of technology use in farming (Campenhout 2019). The utilization of information and communication technologies as a way to enable solutions to food and agricultural production is still low. This undermines the role information and communication technologies could play in providing opportunities to advance related technology adoption and success, improving access to financial services, and providing information on the market and prices, meteorological conditions and farming practices. The importance of information and communication technologies in developing agricultural sector in Republic of Uganda is eminent, and once adopted, it will enhance agricultural productivity and alleviate poverty among farming communities (Oyelami et al. 2022).

2) Climate change

In Republic of Korean peninsula, the outlook of climate change provided by the National Institute of Metrological Research (2009) indicate that by the year 2100 (end of 21^st Century), it is predicted that the average temperature of Republic of Korea will increase by 4.0°C, and the sea level by 1 m. This therefore indicates the risk at which agricultural productivity will be at due to continuous climatic change. This will therefore affect the capacity for Republic of Korea to compete in the world market, and affect food security, if no interventions for sustainable farming systems are employed (Koo et al. 2009). Research indicates that due to global warming, over the past 100 years, Republic of Korea’s normal temperature has increased by 1.5°C (1.9°C in winter and 0.3°C in summer) with an average reduced time of winter and elongated summer and early blooming in the spring. As a result, geographical areas for farming have changed, and crop damage by diseases and pests has increased, leading to reduced agricultural productivity. This can be seen in the apple-farming area, which has shifted north, even to Yangu, Gangwon Province, from Daegu, Gyeonbook Province (Kim and Bae 2020). Heat stress as a resulting from climatic changes, has affected livestock production in Republic of Korea due to its negative impact on their productivity. There has been a decline of milk production and lactation persistency as linked to heat stress effect in animal production. As a result of these changes, agricultural productivity has decreased, the cultivation region for crops has moved northward, and damage from winter pests has increased (Jeon et al. 2023). Climate change, which is driven by global warming and greenhouse gases, has continuously contributed to the conflict between the country’s and world food supply. In addition, climate change has led to poor water quality and water deficits in agricultural production in Republic of Korea (Lee et al. 2022a).

Republic of Uganda ranked among the 30 highly vulnerable nations by Notre Dame Global Adaptation (ND-GAIN) Index1, and ranked 154 out of 178 vulnerable countries to climate change with an increasing trend of vulnerability. This implies the country is extremely susceptible to climate change impacts. Major climate change impacts, including ever-changing weather patterns, frequent/severe dry spells, reduced water levels, increased incidences of floods, drought, and pests and diseases, which have led to reduced agricultural outcomes (Epule et al. 2017). These effects continue to emphasize development plans and initiatives to develop crop and livestock production systems. Some parts of the country will continue to experience climate variability with extreme dry spells, whereas other areas will experience extreme rainfall. indicates Karamoja as the area in Republic of Uganda that has heavily been affected by climate change and drought, this has overtime led to environmental degradation, soil depletion, and poor harvests leading to food insecurity and hunger. Due to climatic changes, the cattle corridor areas in Republic of Uganda have been registered as potential candidates to food insecurity due to decline in water surfaces increase in hot and arid climate, recurrent short rainy season that have torrential rains. These conditions have led to soil erosion, increase in pathogen and pest incidences, increased degradation of land, contributing to low productivity of farming systems. The livelihoods of Karamoja Sub-region inhabitants, in the North Eastern part of Republic of Uganda, is at a high risk due to rapid degradation of pastoral rangeland (Akwango et al. 2017). The result of climate variability in Karamoja Sub-region has had a significant effect on crop production yields and livestock productivity. Climate change effect has led to increased pest and diseases incidences, decreased water resources, changed the crop flowering and fruiting time, etc. In addition, climate change effects have increased the vulnerability of smallholder farmers, who constitute the majority (85%) of the farming community. More than half of rural households are dependent on agriculture for their livelihoods (Wichern et al. 2019).

3) Labor force in agriculture sector

Republic of Korea has a rapid aging rural farming population that has led to the abandonment and neglect of arable farmland. This has been attributed to the migration of many younger Republic of Koreans to the urban for other livelihood options, which has decreased the total farmland area from 2298 million ha to 1679 million ha. Aging population problem has become apparent as the elderly population rate of agricultural managers increased from 33.7% to 46.5% between 2011 and 2019. This implies that more than 46% of all Republic of Korean farmers are 65 or older. The trend of elderly ownership of farmlands has affected agricultural development in Republic of Korea, since elderly-owned farmlands can potentially be abandoned once they (the elderly) reach retirement age, and the next generation of farmers cannot inherit the farms after moving to urban areas (Cho et al. 2023).

Republic of Uganda is the world’s the youngest populated country, with 77% of its population being less than 30 years of age (Loga et al. 2022). In the recent years, youth involvement in agricultural sector has reduced compared to the elderly involvement. Republic of Uganda has an ageing farmer profile with 55% of farming managers over the age of 40, and 20% over the age of 60, though many interventions aimed at making agriculture more profitable for the youth have been financed (Sell and Minot 2018). The cohort labor of youths involved in agricultural production is majorly involved in subsistence farming, with limited application of appropriate technologies on their farms. Coupled with many other factors, the decline in youth involvement in agricultural farming systems affects the development and sustainability of the agricultural sector (Mdege et al. 2022).

4) Environmental problems

The genesis of Republic of Korea’s environmental problems stretches back in the late nineteenth century when Japan gained power over them. The indiscriminate cutting of trees that became more severe during the last stage of Pacific War when charcoal production for supply in Japan for war was at high, this led to the decline in natural quality and carbon stocks. Between 1910 and 1952, Republic of Korea’s forest resource cover reduced from 700 million m³ to 36 million m³. This enormous loss of tree cover led to constant floods, heavy soil erosions and drought that affected the livelihoods and agricultural development at that time. The changes in the ecosystem forced Republic of Korea farmers to change from traditional farming systems to modern farming systems that incorporated the use of synthetic chemicals and practiced monoculture of rice, this later initiated the depletion of soils. This transition led to agroecological diversity loss, leading to reduced productivity of farming hence leading to food insecurity (Liu and Sheng 2023). Besides the effects of war, industrialization in Republic of Korea has grown along with complex externalities associated with damages on human health, agricultural systems, environment systems, water quality, air quality and agroecological systems through increased pollution by anthropogenic pollutants. Therefore, environmental problems associated with waste management has therefore reduced the water foot print, leading to economic loss (Kang et al. 2022).

The Republic of Ugandan growing population pressure, urbanization and pressure on natural resources exert tremendous pressure on agricultural productivity through their effects on deforestation, wetland degradation, loss of rain forest biome, soil erosion and water and land pollution. This trend has led to vulnerability of society due to biodiversity loss, which has later triggered food insecurity (Gizachew et al. 2018). The current agricultural production in Republic of Uganda is characterized by low input-out system due to the wide-range of agricultural production risks associated with environmental degradation and ecosystem destruction. The environmental problems have affected agricultural and food systems sustainability (Call and Gray 2020).

5) Farming Practices

In Republic of Korea, majority of aquaculture farming practices are through monoculture and farms are condensed, this leads environmental changes and negative outcomes like reduction in benthic biodiversity, harmful algal blooms, nutrient limitation in sea weed farms and eutrophication Denis et al (2022).

Some farming practices in Republic of Uganda like bush burning to open land for cultivation, indiscriminate use of synthetic chemicals, monoculture, etc, have led to loss of biodiversity, depletion of nutrients in soil, loss of microorganisms and organic matter resulting to imbalance in ecological systems. This has led to reduced agricultural production which has increased small holder farmers’ vulnerability to food insecurity On the other hand, livestock grazing on rangelands in the cattle corridor of Republic of Uganda has led to loss of vegetation cover, soil compaction, increased incidences of diseases, reduced forage production, poor water quality, etc. Bush burning in the rangelands have been common, which has led to biodiversity loss, soil erosion, flooding and exposing forage to direct harsh conditions. This has therefore led to low animal productivity. The low livestock productivity increase the vulnerability of pastoral community to food insecurity (Okwakol and Sekamatte 2007).

6) Irrigation coverage

The development of Irrigation systems in Republic of Korea’s agricultural sector has been a priority, and more than 40% of the cultivated area is irrigated with rice paddy being the major crop under irrigation (Nam et al. 2017). However, a number of irrigated fields are still subject to possible challenges of nutrient loss due to poor drainage systems associated with poor irrigation facilities, and Republic of Korean rural areas are extremely susceptible to water shortfalls because of seasonal variations in precipitation. In addition, irrigation development in Republic of Korea is affected by water insecurity and water quality degradation due to insufficient fresh water, water pollution problems encountered through disposal from urban storm runoff, industrial complexes, drainage water from livestock breeding facilities, sewage and waste treatment all of which affect watershed areas (Jeong et al. 2016).

Irrigation has gained significant importance worldwide because of its potential to improve and sustain agricultural development. However, 0.5% of Republic of Uganda’s cultivated area is under irrigation, with rice being the most crop under irrigation Denis et al (2022). Less than 1% of farm households in Republic of Uganda have access to irrigation, which exposes agricultural sector to climate risk and induces erratic fluctuations in agricultural production. The major challenges of irrigation development in Republic of Uganda are poor infrastructure, record keeping system, extension system, water quality, and water management system. Additionally, Republic of Uganda lacks the technology to effectively tap into the abundantly available groundwater resources, which are typically located between 1 to 20 meters below the surface in many regions of the country. This extensive source of water remains largely untapped, despite its proximity to agricultural areas Reuben et al. (2019). This, in addition to other factors, like land tenure problems, has affected access to reliable water for irrigation, hence affecting the country’s irrigation systems development. Besides, information on irrigation development in Republic of Uganda is scarce and segmented in various documents, and a comprehensive assessment has not been conducted, thus undermining consensus on how to make the most of the existing resources and infrastructure (Wanyama et al. 2017).

7) Access to agricultural extension and advisory services

Agriculture is a knowledge-driven occupation, and the diffusion of the agricultural knowledge, information, financial services, and technologies necessary for improving agricultural development among farmers is boosted by access to agricultural extension and advisory services.

The history of the Republic of Korean Agricultural Extension System (AES) is associated with the American-style cooperative system of , which was introduced before 1962. However, the American-style cooperative system of Agriculture Extension System proved not to be suitable to the conditions and environment of Republic of Korea, which led to a mixed understanding of the approach. In 1962, following the “Rural Development Law” whose main goal was to let a single leading organization implement research and development of agricultural technology as well as Agriculture Extension System, Rural Development Administration, was established. This organization exists to date (Rivera 2001; Suh 2018). Republic of Korea combined three functions ie (i) technology development, (ii) technology distribution and (iii) extension functions to make one general organization for extension and advisory services, this has improved Republic of Korean agricultural research and extension system. This has led to improved agricultural productivity among farmers in Republic of Korea. Through the arrangement of a combination of research and development with extension, three major roles were established to enhance the proper integration of Research and Development with extension under Rural Development Administration management. As indicated in Fig. 7, the major roles include: 1. Execution of Research and Development for increased efficiency and effectiveness in agricultural technology; 2. Agricultural production knowledge, information and technology transfer to rural areas to enhance agricultural development; 3. Training of farmers, youths, local leaders, students, and professionals in agricultural technology and extension offices in rural branches (Park and Moon 2019).

Figure 7. Access to agricultural extension and advisory services in The Republic of Korea (Park and Moon 2019)

In Republic of Uganda, the average smallholder farmer produces only 28% of the yield. The poor yields are associated with difficulties related to technical extension and advisory services provided to farmers with limited resources, inadequate knowledge and skills to use advanced agricultural technologies and agricultural management systems and illiterate farmers. Although Republic of Uganda launched a national agricultural extension policy in 2016 to increase the effectiveness of extension services the most accessed and dominating extension approaches in Republic of Uganda remained non-digital. A total of 75% of farmers access extension and advisory services from electronic sources, mostly radios. This is because people have access to electricity, and ownership of radios is more pronounced than other digital devices. Limitations in accessing and using most digital extension services are attributed to low technical support for using digital devices, low digital literacy among extensionists, poor awareness of the existence of digital services, high costs of the internet and mobile devices, lack of ownership and control of digital services, and difficulties associated with obtaining information on crop pest/disease diagnosis and management (Monica et al. 2022; Florence and Cho 2014). The government of Republic of Uganda established a structure to enhance access to agricultural extension and advisory services, as indicated in Fig. 8.

Figure 8. Access to agricultural extension and advisory services in Republic of Uganda

Smart farming, also known as digital farming, depends on the use of Artificial intelligence and Internet of Things in farm management. The inspiration behind smart farming solutions is the enhancement towards the optimization of energy and raw material supplies, facilitation of the sharing of information with the farming network, reduction in the ecological impact of agricultural activities, and a decrease in inputs used without affecting yield, quality, and quantity supported by the applications, services and sensors as indicated in Fig. 9 (Charania and Li 2020). Historically, smart farming is regarded as a continuously evolving process of agriculture; It has grown over time via the integration of science and engineering in agriculture, innovation, and technology development and has evolved into a more digital and self-automated process (Kohlmeyer and Herum 1961).

Figure 9. Smart Farm Systems

Republic of Korea’s first smart farm was introduced in 1997 by Green Plus with a localized greenhouse, and since then, the development of smart farming has been expanding. Since early 2000s, the government of Republic of Korea has implemented policies, strategies and applied various efforts to apply ICT to develop smart farms (Sargazi Moghadam et al. 2023). Smart farm technologies has been ap[plied to a total of 1425 livestock farms in Republic of Korea since 2018. Through the Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs, Republic of Korean government is committed to redefining agricultural practices through smart farming (Lee et al. 2022a). The motivation behind the evolution of smart farming systems in the two countries is improving of production yields, reduction of environmental effects, simplification of work, and saving of time and resources to ensure production system efficiency (Jakku et al. 2019). However, numerous factors such as limited to poor and unreliable technology and low technical expertise in the expertise of smart farming, have been affecting the quick take-off and adoption of smart farming in the earlier days. Furthermore, a high investment cost is associated with establishing and managing a smart farm, which limits the demand to adopt the system (Pivoto et al. 2018).

Republic of Uganda has majorly been implementing Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) to sustain food production and enhance food security in households amidst weather variabilities and climate hazards (particularly drought). Major practices that have been incorporated under Climate Smart Agriculture include: Conservation agriculture, irrigation and collecting rainwater, crop diversification, drip agroforestry, integrated pest management, planting basins practices, etc. (Wycliffe et al. 2023). However, the incorporation of smart farming in the agricultural systems is taking shape with several technologies, ie IoT, use of electronics, use of applications, etc, being applied in farming. For example, to enhance the development of smart farm, the government of Republic of Uganda has included the integration of electronic technologies (smart farming) as one of the priorities for development under Republic of Uganda Vision 2040 (Raile et al. 2021). Republic of Uganda has initiated several commitments aimed at supporting advancement of smart farming systems.

Nevertheless, smart farming has become a new normal, as farms that have not yet adopted smart telemetry to monitor, transfer, and analyze data risk are left out (Suciu et al. 2019). However, smart farming development is still an ongoing process, as more innovations and technologies are being developed to render the system more efficient.

Approaches and strategies to smart farming

The Republic of Republic of Korea and Republic of Uganda and have employed varied strategies towards smart farm development, coming up with various approaches, including policies and development plans that support smart farm solution development as in indicated in (Table 1).

Table 1 . Major concept behind smart farm development (O’Shaughnessy et al. 2021; Yang et al. 2020).

Description	Republic of Korea	Republic of Uganda
Vision	Holistic Smart communities, regenerate rural areas	Contributing towards a competitive, profitable and sustainable agricultural sector
Objective	Foster Facility Farming. Response to Climate Change. Food security. Laying a basis for the introducing ICT convergence facilities. Production improvement and reduction in labor force.	Increased Productivity. Increased resilience to impact of climate change. Food security.
Main drivers	Government collaborations	Competing private sector members
Supplementary drivers	Private sector	Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), Universities and Research centers
Model	Nationalistic, Technology centric	None

For the past five years, The International Telecommunication Union (ITU)’s Global Information and Communication Technology Development Index has indicated Republic of Korea as one of the top three leading countries on information technology worldwide. The progress of Republic of Korea’s technological development is based on government efforts in plans and implementations geared towards research and development. The efforts put into information and communication technologies development support the implementation of a well-laid Republic of Korean national plan that informs the implementation of smart-farm solutions (Jun et al. 2013). The government has developed a five-year economic plan that supports the development of smart farming solutions through technology development and has come up with supportive policies geared toward Research and Development to enrich the building of smart innovations, foster professional youth, and promote the standardization of apparatus (Kim et al. 2001). Republic of Korea launched the “Digital Green New Deal Plan” to boost the farming transition to a green and sustainable economy and scaling up data-driven smart agriculture. In addition, Republic of Korea launched the National Innovation System, designed with the objective of improving and developing regional economies and lead R&D. This has opened fresh opportunities for advancing smart farms, eg through integrating big data systems in smart farms and operating research and development strategies such as innovation valley. (Table 2) presents Republic of Korean R&D trends and phases of smart agriculture. Technological development and innovation contribute to diversification in farming systems and the role of the government can lead to the development of smart farming system.

Table 2 . Republic of Korean R&D trends and phases of smart farming as per National Science and Technology Information Service (NTIS) information (Lee et al. 2022a).

Phase	Major topic of each phase	Key words to describe the phase	Outcome of the phase
Phase I	Conservation and utilization technology for agricultural and marine biological resources	Soil information system. Fertilizer usage prescription. Data base. Environmental control. Automation. Energy saving.	Interesting growth sensor. Crop prediction. Diagnosis. 3D image analysis. Growth data analysis.
	Other energy technologies
	Other genetic technologies
	Bio-energy technology
Phase II	Environmental management, information and system technology	Climate change. IoT, ICT Convergence, Big data, Robots, Drone. Soil-plant weather research. Growth prediction model.	Production prediction. Pest control. Artificial intelligence. Cloud. Deep learning. Environmental optimization.
	Natural environment restoration technology
	Information retrieval and database technology
Phase III	Other network technologies	Artificial intelligence. Cloud. Platform. Standardization. Image processing. Deep learning. Smart pest control. Image analysis. Growth diagnosis.	Professional labor training. Renewable energy. Female-friendly agricultural machine. Fully automated unmanned ban.
	Bio-informatics technologies
	Intelligence autonomous flying unmanned aerial vehicle system (UAV) technology
	Functional biomaterial-based technology
	Other components technologies for ICT
	Conservation and utilization technology for agriculture and marine biological resources and Robot technology

The fact that Republic of Korea prioritizes technology development coupled with research and development, as indicated in Fig. 10, has provided a good platform for the development of smart-farm systems. In addition, the Korean government, through the Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs (MAFRA), prioritizes revolutionizing farming through smart or digital agriculture by advancing funds for smart farm development and employing modern technologies in the entire chain of crop production and distribution, which includes sowing seeds, management of growing crops, and management of the supply chain (Lee et al. 2022a). Smart farms that is favorable for crop management in Republic of Korea are holistically established, encompassing a self-automated system as presented in Fig. 11. Adopted smart farm in Republic of Korea encompasses several components that include; Soil data sensors, air conditioning control, air circulation fan, soil data sensor, pH sensors, nutria-culture machine, computer, camera, thermometer, outdoor weather station, recording device, cloud server, ceiling windows, etc (Jeong and Hong 2019).

Figure 10. Generation classification of the Republic of Korean smart farm and its commercial Outlook (Jeong and Hong 2019)

Figure 11. Smart farm system for crop management in Republic of Korea. (A), small scale smart farm system located in Geonjae, Naju-si, (B), Large scale Smart Farm located at Rural Development Administration offices located in Jeongju-si, Jeonbuk-do, Republic of Korea

To lay the foundation for establishing smart farms, Republic of Uganda has Integrated smart farming technologies in her Vison 2040. The objective of integrating smart farm is to increase agricultural productivity, transition farming systems from subsistence to commercial through improved technology, crop and livestock management, and efficient resource utilization (Chilvers 2018). In addition, Republic of Ugandan National Planning Authority is advocating for further prioritization of digitalization agenda that will integrate the smart farm strategy into the plan to achieve the Republic of Ugandan vision 2040. However, successful advocacy to revolutionize agricultural production from traditional farming systems to digitalized systems requires the involvement of different stakeholders, which may include but is not limited to policymakers, a wider society in the agricultural value chain, and different institutions. The advocacy should be performed within a clear plan and framework (Chilvers 2018). Nevertheless, the Republic of Uganda National Development Plan 2020/21-2024/25, which integrates agricultural transformation and food security, was designed with the objective of implementing the multi-sector-wide government approach that involve different governmental and non-governmental institutions and structures, this favors the progress of scaling up smart farming systems. However, Republic of Uganda lucks a structured strategy to implement smart-farm solutions, in other words, there is no evidence of a clear road map for developing smart-farm solutions. The plans are based on separate smart-farm components introduced by the competing private sector and others promoted by Non-Governmental Organizations and Government institutions have led to high-tech systems that advance the smart-farm concept (Yang et al. 2020). As in indicated in Fig. 12, most smart farms in Republic of Uganda have components being separately introduced include digitalized solar systems in farming, water supply system, simple and low-cost mobile applications that have been developed to monitor weather conditions, pest and disease surveillance, and monitoring of soil health, which empower farmers to make informed decisions in their production systems. However, De-Pablos-Heredero et al. (2018) demonstrated the need for a holistic approach to sustainably implement the smart farm concept, as compared to separate smart-farm component-based approaches that are being implemented in Republic of Uganda.

Figure 12. Smart farm system for crop management in Makerere University Agricultural Research Institute Kabanyoro, in Republic of Uganda

Policies and advances that supports smart farm development in Republic of Korea and Republic of Uganda

Republic of Korea and Republic of Uganda have come up with several interventions and policies as shown in (Table 3) below to support the scaling up smart farming technologies and enhance sustainable farming systems.

Table 3 . Some policies and advances in Republic of Korea and Republic of Uganda that support smart farming systems.

Country	Policies And Advances	Major Role	Reference
RPUBLIC OF KOREA	Agricultural Policy.	Foster competitiveness along food chain, environmental stability of agriculture.	O’Shaughnessy et al. 2021
	Smart Farm Sector in Republic of Korea.	Promote smart farm development	Kim and Jin 2022
	Rural Development Administration	Facilitate agricultural research, technology dissemination	Choo and Park 2022
	Smart City National Policy.	Solving urban problems, developing an inclusive smart city	Lim et al. 2024
	Eco-friendly Agriculture Promotion Act.	Pursuing eco-friendly agriculture by reducing its environmental pollution	Kim and Lee 2019
	Forestry act and Recreation Act.	Conservation, management and sustainability of forestry culture and resources.	Park and Lee 2014
	Agricultural water saving policy.	Managing agricultural Use (Quantity and Quality).	Lee et al. 2022b
	Republic of Korean Environmental policy.	Environmental preservation, sustainability and improve carbon productivity	Mo 2023
	Smart Village projects.	Agricultural value-added industries, diversifying rural economic activities	Park and Lee 2019
	Green New Deal and National Innovation System	Policy demand: 1) Urban space and, 2) Energy sector, 3) Industrial Sector	Lee and Woo 2020 Kim et al. 2020
	Digital New Deal Plan.	Accelerate digital transformation.	Kim and Choi 2021
	Republic of Korea Agricultural Policy Experience for Food Security	Consulting in Strengthening Food Security Abilities for other countries	Bautista et al. 2017
REPUBLIC OF UGANDA	Republic of Uganda’s Vision 2040 (UV 2040).	Integration of smart farming technologies in transforming agriculture.	Whitney et al. 2017
	Uganda’s National Development Plan III (FY 2020/21-2024/25)	Encourages the adoption to advanced and technological farming practices	Nabyonga et al. 2022
	National Agricultural Extension Policy.	Influences food security, nutrition security and improved household income	Brenya and Zhu 2023
	National Irrigation Policy.	Supports sustainable availability of water for irrigation and its efficient use	Nakawuka et al. 2018
	National Environment Management Policy 1995.	Enhances environmental quality and resource productivity on long-term basis	Twesigye Morrison 2009
	National Agricultural Advisory Services Act.	Responsible for public agricultural advisory/extension services.	Rwamigisa et al. 2018
	Uganda Nutrition Action Plan II (2020/201-2024/2025).	Improved nutrition among children, adolescents, pregnant, vulnerable groups	Pomeroy-Stevens et al. 2016
	The Uganda Green Growth Development Strategy 2017/18-2019/30.	Attaining Republic of Uganda Vison 2040 and NDP II 2020/2021 – 2024/2025	Westoby and Lyons 2016
	Food and Nutrition Policy (2003).	Food chain (food production to consumption) is efficiently managed	Namugumya et al. 2020
	National Organic Agriculture Policy	Strengthening the agriculture, avoid the use of synthetic and harmful chemicals	Bendjebbar and Fouilleux 2022
	National Forestry and Tree Planting Act.	Conservation, sustainable management and development of forests	Turyahabwe and Banana 2008
	Agricultural Chemical (control) Act, 2006.	Control and regulate the manufacture, storage, distribution and trade	Kasimbazi 2020

Management of crops and animals under smart farms

In Republic of Korea, smart farms utilize a holistic, integrated system of equipment and technologies to enhance crop monitoring and development. These include drone technologies that offer field mapping and bioformulation application capabilities for herbicides, pesticides, and fertilizers (Hyunjin 2020). Smartphones support the process of digitalization of smart agricultural production systems, IoT devices, and sensors that enable the monitoring of environmental conditions, including light intensity, temperature, and humidity, which helps to create best conditions for optimizing the production of crops management via environmental care practices (Kemp 2013). In addition, Republic of Korea is investing several efforts in research regarding the development of smart farms. This has accelerated adoption of smart farming technologies in Republic of Korea. Several outcomes have been registered so far including increase in production, diversification in processing availability of and utilization of skills and knowledge and appropriate transfer of information in regards to agricultural management in Republic of Korea (Hyunjin 2020). Decreasing population and ageing farming community have triggered transition to new technologies. To maintain the balance of local and global supply and demand of crop and livestock products, Republic of Korea has increased investment in information and telecommunication technology to enhance the sustainability of agriculture and food systems through smart farming solution. The integrated information and telecommunication technologies in livestock and crop management put into consideration the sensing, monitoring, and controlling as a well as automation/mechanization and energy saving. Republic of Korea’s smart farm strategy, also known as smart Korean farm plays a great role is establishing realistic alternative for enhancing agricultural sustainability and influence the 6^th global agricultural industrialization. The 6^th global agricultural industrialization encompasses peasantness, production and agricultural processing (Kemp 2013). This is timely to take into consideration the value of smart farms for the sustainability of agricultural development since the smart farm technological transformation is aimed at increasing productivity of the production system, enhancing its efficiency and enabling safe food systems, sustainable food security and environmentally friendly agricultural system. The generation classification of the Republic of Korean Smart farm is as indicated in Fig 10. Republic of Korean government has continuously come up with several policies and interventions targeting the sustainable development of smart farms under both crop and livestock systems as indicated in Table 3.

Under crop production, Smart farming in Republic of Uganda largely relies on mobile applications to support crop monitoring and management. These applications are helpful in connecting farmers to suppliers, buyers, service providers, and producer traders, and providing updates on weather forecasts and pest outbreak. In addition, the use of remote sensing applied to aid good irrigation management facilitates the optimization of crop management, allows greater crop yields, and improves livestock management through efficient resource management (Wamala et al. 2023). On the other hand, livestock farmers in Republic of Uganda are engaged in using Farm Management Smart Phone Apps for record keeping, market access, feed mixing, monitoring of livestock, disease identification, and reporting, one of the common used IoT Apps for livestock management in Republic of Uganda is Jaguza livestock App. Jaguza livestock app has been used in Republic of Uganda cattle fertility management based of body temperature and physical activity. The app creates livestock data base for identifying livestock diseases, applying modelling of geospatial epidemiological, and supporting diagnostics exercise on farm. The app provides data that supports research in livestock sector, it in addition, it is cost effective in regards to accurate livestock infield diagnosis since models are always installed in mobile phones. Therefore, this supports remote livestock screening which reduces operation cost on farm. The app and data set provide a platform for real -time livestock surveillance and mapping, hence creating a platform for livestock sector partners to monitor and take action based on identified threats and incidence in livestock management systems (Che’Ya et al. 2022). The use of mobile phone apps in the management of livestock in Republic of Uganda is still low. Adoption of phone use in farming is increasing in market linkage, linkage with agro-input dealers, weather prediction, monitoring market trends and linking with agricultural and livestock extension agents (Namyenya et al. 2022). Other apps used in Republic of Uganda smart farming systems include; Rwenzori Dairy App (for farm management). Azure web App (used to store farmers’ information and controlling infrastructure) (Ahikiriza et al. 2022), EzyAgric digital platform (Linking farmers to farm inputs, and services), Feed calculation App (generate least-cost and highly quality feed recipes based on local available ingredients), among others (Hilary et al. 2017), GeoFarmer App (provides tools for interactive feedback loops between platform users)(Nanyanzi et al. 2022). The mentioned Apps use smart phones.

Partnership for smart farming

Republic of Korea has been involved in building international partnerships alongside research and development in collaboration with various countries to revitalize and boost the export of smart farming solutions. Republic of Korea announced an development measure for smart farm plant exports to facilitate the export of world-renowned Republic of Korean smart technologies. The country has partnered with the EU, USA, Japan, Kazakhatan, Philippines, Australia, and United Arab Emirates (UAE). For example, in 2021, Republic of Korea built a smart farm in the United Arab Emirates that relied on a mist cooling system to reduce water consumption while sustaining the ideal temperature for crop production (Kim and Choi 2021). The government of Republic of Korea established Korea International Cooperation Agency (KOICA) in April 1991 to maximize cooperation with other countries (especially developing countries) including in Republic of Uganda, with the focus of promoting sustainable development and attending to global concerns such as environment, poverty reduction, among others. In addition, the implementation strategy of Korea International Cooperation Agency contributes towards attaining the Sustainable Development Goals (Musinguzi 2017).

Republic of Uganda has been involved in several partnerships with various countries to promote the use of modern farming technologies. In addition, many international programs geared towards the development of smart farming systems are being implemented by Non-Governmental Organizations, private sector, and government institutions (Universities and Research Centers). Major international partnerships have been established with the government of China while focusing on commercializing agriculture through the use of modern technologies. In addition, Republic of Uganda is part of multi-stakeholder partnerships (MSPs) platform established to help achieving the Sustainable Development Goals and enrich the National Agriculture Policy Frame work (Lawther 2017).

Technology infrastructure

Republic of Korea has positioned itself as one of the world’s leaders in smart farming, leveraging innovation, advanced technological structures, and government support. Through the Ministry of Science and Technology, advancements have integrated 5G networks in smart innovations, leading to a high degree of network connectedness, development of IoT technologies, and high penetration of mobile devices, smart sensors, drones, and robotics. The integration of the aforementioned equipment and technologies has been extensively employed to monitor crop development, optimize irrigation, and automate farming processes (van Hilten and Wolfert 2022). Republic of Korea is promoting a strategy of integrating systems i.e. machinery and equipment system, data collection and management system and automation system. These systems help in improving the efficiency, optimization of resource use and productivity of the smart farming system (Pivoto et al. 2018).

On the other hand Republic of Uganda faces technological infrastructure challenges that have limited the development of many sectors, including the agricultural sector. Despite these challenges, notable progress has been made in implementing smart farming solutions. With the step by step development and access to reliable internet connectivity, the rapid adoption of mobile phone use has been registered, which has played a significant role in disseminating agricultural information to farmers. Subscription and ownership of mobile phones and inter net user registration in Republic of Uganda have been on increase. 12.83 million mobile phones subscription were registered in 2010 compared to 24.95 million mobile phones registered in 2017 where as 12.5% internet users was registered in 2010 compared to 21.9% registered in 2016 (Marzuki et al. 2020). This indicates the progress in mobile phone use. Simple and low-cost mobile applications have been developed to monitor weather conditions, pest and disease surveillance, and soil health, empowering farmers to make informed decisions regarding their production systems (Balogun et al. 2022). Farmers use smart phones to access the Apps for smart farming.

Irrigation and water management

Freshwater scarcity is a major concern in Republic of Korea’s agriculture. To maximize the available water, the Republic of Korea’s government has developed a smart farming system that identifies the response of local crops and supplies water using Artificial Intelligence. The system uses soil moisture sensors, ultrasonic sensors, and weather forecasting algorithms that provide farmers with an automatic method of irrigating their fields while optimizing water usage by ensuring that crops receive adequate moisture. To overcome future water shortages, the government established 99 onsite water recycling systems with a potential capacity of 429 thousand tons/day (Noh et al. 2004). The government of Republic of Korea has come up with advances and policies that support irrigation system sustainability e.g Agricultural water saving policy to manage agricultural Use (Quantity and Quality)(Lee et al. 2022b). Other policies and advances are as indicated in (Table 3).

For generations, Republic of Ugandan farmers have relied on rain-dependent subsistence farming for food and cash income. Although irrigation systems were implemented as early as the 1900s in Northern Uganda, irrigation is mainly associated with large-scale schemes for crops like rice, and some simple irrigation systems are being adopted for vegetable growth. To improve technology-based farming systems, the Republic of Uganda government, through The Ministry of Water and Environment (MWE) and The Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industries and Fisheries (MAAIF), have developed an irrigation master plan 2010-2035 that targets three categories of farmers: traditional farmers, emerging farmers, and commercial farmers. In addition to the earlier mentioned government plan, strategies and policies mentioned in Table 3, farmers are adopting the use of solar-powered water pumps as a low-cost irrigation systems as a way of sustaining their production system. This is mainly gaining dominance in peri-urban areas under vegetable management. The irrigation systems adopted above are connected to mobile-based irrigation scheduling applications used by farmers that maximize irrigation efficiency by reducing water waste while improving crop yields. The government of Republic of Uganda came up with National Irrigation Policy (NIP) to guide the development and implementation of irrigation systems plan while ensuring the availability, accessibility and sustainability of water for production for food security enhancement (Nakawuka et al. 2018).

Data analytics and decision support

Republic of Korea’s smart farms use data analytics to optimize their farming practices employed on the farm. The collected data on rainfall patterns, pest infestation on the farm, fertilizer requirements, crop growth, and water cycle enable farmers to make informed decisions that lead to good harvests and profitability at the farm (Son et al. 2023).

Republic of Uganda’s farming systems have limited access to advanced data analytics; however, farmers use the available data-driven support tools in their farming systems. Some available applications provide information on weather forecasts, pest surveillance, and market linkages. This encourages farmers to take preventive measures and mitigate crop losses. Republic of Uganda’s is in the process of developing models tailored to agricultural contexts that can provide insights and recommendations to farmers to support smart farm development (Dayoub et al. 2021).

Smart farm solutions for climate change mitigation

To realize climate change mitigation in different production systems, Republic of Korea established a policy that will guide the achievement carbon neutrality before 2050. This will be supported by creation of synergies between Research and Development innovations with “Green New Deal” and “Digital New Deal Plans” (Kim and Choi 2021). The synergies create resilient land scape for agriculture, people, land, nature and climate through green innovations and digital technologies. The innovations enhance carbon cycling through engaging in eco-friendly interventions such as precision irrigation, production and use of low greenhouse gas fodders in livestock management, promoting clean energy and hydrogen use in all government and private sectors and reducing the carbon foot print from the atmosphere through smart energy efficiency and waste reusing strategies. Republic of Korea established a certification programme to encourage the use of minimum inputs. It in addition advise and guide consumer on how to reduce food homogeneity (the lack of diversity in the food we eat) and food waste because they have dangerous impact on climate change, food security and human health. The implementation of the above strategies is based on policies and advances as presented in Table 3.

Fossil fuel usage is still high in Republic of Uganda, this is linked to the prediction of greenhouse gas emission rise between 2040-2050, which will lead to climatic changes and hence affect the ecological network and food production systems through. Therefore, established strategies for climate change adaptation and resilience stabilizes the interlinkage between natural resources use, food production, food consumption, energy resource use, carbon emission and land use management practices while meeting consumer demand for food, hence, smart farming solutions could present adaptation strategies to climate change while interlinking energy, food, water and land scape (Huo et al. 2024). Republic of Uganda has enacted policies to support the nexus between land, energy and water resources systems. Besides, the high tariffs of water and electricity use still affects the efficiency of integrating water use and energy in smart farming system in Republic of Uganda (Sridharan et al. 2020). Though water and electricity tariffs make the application of smart farming system expensive for farmers, the integration of smart grid concept in power generation from renewable energy resources is growing step by step with slow progress in shaping the low cost irrigation systems. The integration of smart grid in the smart farming system could reduce the operational cost of smart farms, and hence contribute towards mitigation of climate change.

Smart farming solutions in mitigating Green House Gas (GHG) emission.

Republic of Korea implements the Tier1 default enteric methane emission factors to support the reporting of greenhouse gas inventory. This is to compared with the proposed generic Tier 1 default as proposed by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) guidelines for high-milk cows in 2019. The proposed default has 138 kg emission factors of methane/head/year. The methane emission factors highly correspond to fodder digestibility, capacity of milk production in addition to methane conversion rate. Therefore, adoption of emission factors for dairy cattle contributes towards reduction in greenhouse gases under Republic of Korean dairy farming system (sector) by 97,000 tons of carbon dioxide per annum Eska et al. (2022). Republic of Korea controls methane emission in the livestock production through application of biogas, the use of forage bins and capitalizing on concentrate mix on daily livestock intake in the feeding of livestock (Ji and Park 2012).

Angela et al. (2000) indicates that methane, one of the potential greenhouse gases, is produced by ruminant animals. Between the year of 2013 and 2017, Republic of Uganda increased in livestock production (cattle, sheep, and goats) by 7,878,000 heads, this increased the greenhouse gases emission due to opening vast land for livestock management, burning of grazing land and reduction of forest biome that sequences carbon dioxide. This therefore calls for options for decreasing the emission of greenhouse gases in livestock farms. Smart farm technologies create a robust monitoring system for managing livestock through enhancing their welfare and improving their health. The system can as well lead to environmental sustainability. Smart farm technologies support in disease identification, nutrition and energy balance, monitoring livestock movement, reducing the impact environmental impact on livestock and improving the quality, consistence and sustainability of the livestock production system (Morrone et al. 2022). The management of ruminant animals under smart farm system reduces the emission of greenhouse gasses through harnessing information and communication machineries that enhance a more efficient, productive and profitable farming system (Neethirajan 2023). However, The Republic of Uganda is promoting the use of biogas production to decrease the greenhouse gas emission among livestock farmers. In addition, anaerobic digesters have been used in handling manure, this has contributed to the decrease in annual greenhouse gas emission (Kiggundu et al. 2019).

Additionally, under smart farm system, IoT nodes are applied in the animal farm for different reasons eg Robots, GPS sensor (locate livestock in relation to pasture boundaries and accurate manage resources), vaginal thermometer (tracking changes in the body temperature during menstrual cycle and calving detection), food sensors (detection of food levels in feeders, animal sensors (for animal body temperature variations, heart pumping rate, and breathing pace), ambient sensors (for air temperature, methane, relative humidity, and hydrogen sulphide) and base stations for rain and irrigation, temperature variations in soil, soil moisture content, air temperature variations, relative humidity variations, wind speed variations and direction and variations in solar radiation)(Leliveld et al. 2024). Therefore, decreasing methane emission is environmentally and nutritionally essential. Environmentally, methane as a strong greenhouse gas (anthropogenic gas), that is responsible for approximately 30% of the current rise in global temperature through its accumulation on the ground-level ozone, an air pollutant regarded a hazardous to the atmosphere. Nutritionally, methane represents a loss of feed energy (Dervash and Wani 2022).

Methane, which is produced by ruminant animals such as cattle, is more than 75 times hazardous and potent at warming in comparison to carbondioxide. The application of dietary mechanism in livestock feeding under smart farming system could help to mitigate methane and other greenhouse gases’ emissions from livestock especially beef production and dairy production ruminant animals, while maintaining their good productivity (Knapp et al. 2014). Gas sensors applied in the smart farms can be used to measure the potentially dangerous levels of gases in the air inside the ban. This indicates to the farmer, how to reduce gas emission using dietary strategies (putting in consideration of feed intake level, passage rate and mean retention time) on ruminant animals. According to Fouts et al. (2022), the effect of increased grass digestibility on methane mitigation under smart farm differs between ruminant types (beef cattle, dairy cattle, sheep, etc). For example, in the dairy cattle, it is assumed that forages containing a smaller concentration of structural carbohydrates (a characteristics associated with higher organic matter digestibility), may result into decreased methane yield of Dry Matter feed ratio Intake. Dairy cattle feeding strategies for reducing methane emission, are effective to some extent to beef cattle, but not to sheep. Forage quality increases ruminal fermentation relatively more in sheep than in cattle, resulting in relatively more methane production, unless a shift towards hydrogen sinks (ie propionate production) occurs (Ungerfeld 2020).

In addition to dietary strategies of reducing methane emission under smart farming system, incorporation of IoT under smart farming system enhance sufficient real-time monitoring of livestock production parameters, which can later be used in reducing the emission of methane to enhance reduced global warming Skouby et al. (2022). Therefore, since greenhouse gases are responsible for global warming, reducing the carbon foot print facilitates ecological networking, ecosystem stability, agricultural sustainability and food systems, hence, reduced hunger. Smart farming system could help in mitigating the emission of greenhouse gases under livestock production. However, there is need to conduct more research on mechanisms of reducing the emission on anthropogenic gases in the atmosphere across different sectors.

Contribution of smart farming solutions.

The development of smart farm systems in the two countries has been advantageous for several reasons

Republic of Korea’s agriculture is undergoing a fourth industrial revolution triggered by smart farming systems. The integration of information and communication technologies in agricultural systems has led to reduced labor and expenses, increased crop productivity, enhanced reduction in crop pest and disease effects, improved product quality, maximized use of available water, and ensured that fertilizer and pesticide applications are in the correct places. Smart farming has in addition optimized the productivity and profitability of farms by employing robotics, which can manage numerous sensors using Artificial intelligence and Internet of Things technologies (Sung 2018). The smart farm system has enhanced the government of Republic of Korea to manage the effects of aging farmers and reduce labor in the agriculture sector, as a number of youths have abandoned agriculture for urban area employment. However, some crop operations depend on youthful labor, and the absence of labor heavily endangers the productivity and profitability of farms, as a result, the work of aged farmers has been eased since smart farms are self-automated and less laborious (Cortignani et al. 2020). It has as well exerted a positive interlinkage effect between agriculture and secondary and tertiary industries by enhancing the constant supply of raw materials for value addition. The Republic of Korean smart farming systems have the potential to boost consumer acceptance since the products are healthier, resulting in competitive prices. The continuous procurement of smart equipment used in smart farms from within the country and for export in other countries, contributes to the sustainable economic growth of Republic of Korea (Kim and Jin 2022). indicates how smart farm systems are increasing business performance in line with the planning, research, development, and commercialization capabilities of Republic of Korea at local and international levels. Besides, smart farming development through research and development, has enhanced some international cooperation between Republic of Korea and some countries. Republic of Korea has partnered with the EU, USA, Japan, Kazakhatan, Philippines, Australia, and United Arab Emirates (UAE). For example, in 2021, Republic of Korea built a smart farm in the UAE that relied on a mist cooling system to reduce water consumption while sustaining the ideal temperature for crop production (Kim and Choi 2021). Nevertheless, the high cost of establishing smart farms and the technical expertise required still pose challenges for small-scale farmers.

In Republic of Uganda, the integration of modern technology in agricultural operations has the potential to boost agricultural performance because modern technology and innovations present opportunities for farmers to access information on the market, weather patterns, planting seasons, and use aerial crop irrigation, moisture sensors, and mobile applications for farming, which can significantly improve smallholder farmers’ livelihoods, leading to poverty alleviation Skouby et al (2022). Besides, digitalization of agriculture under some components of smart farms has increased the effectiveness of management of livestock, hence contributing towards the reduction of greenhouse gas emission, supporting the marketing of agricultural products, ease access to agricultural inputs, and informed farmers on seasons and reducing vulnerability to climatic changes through the use of simple and affordable digital applications. The whole system has supported the progress towards attaining Sustainable Development Goal 13 (Balogun et al. 2022). The improvement of agricultural and food systems through smart farming solutions contributes towards poverty reduction and improved productivity of farming systems. Digital technologies is changing the agri-food systems in Republic of Uganda, paving the way for farmers to link directly with different stakeholders involved in the agricultural production value chain. The upscaling of information and communication technology tools in weather forecast information dissemination in Republic of Uganda has contributed to an improvement in production among farmers. To increase the efficiency of smart farm systems in Republic of Uganda, there is a need for complex changes in many areas, including changes in planning, allocation of funds for smart farm development, which will increase the scope of stakeholders’ involvement in the chain of transforming agriculture to smart farming systems (Tuheirwe-Mukasa et al. 2019). In addition, inadequate infrastructural development coupled with limited financial resources limit the widespread adoption of smart farming solutions across the country.

The presented approaches of smart farming in the two countries clearly indicates how smart farming systems can either directly or indirectly contribute towards attaining many of the sustainable development goals such as No poverty, Zero hunger, Climate action, Responsible consumption and production, partnership for the goals among others. Fig. 13. presents some benefits of smart farming system.

Figure 13. Some benefits of smart farming system

Challenges in smart farm development

The development of smart-farming solutions is confronted by several difficulties in both countries. Republic of Korea has been facing challenges in the development and adoption to smart farm solutions, with major challenges registered being poor water quality to support the progress of smart farm solutions (Hwang et al. 2003), and the scope of smart farm system in Republic of Korea is still limited to a few types of crops since various crops require dissimilar optimum values for growth. Major crops under smart farms in Republic of Korea include stray berries, melons, tomatoes, and paprika, leaving out others due to their incompatibility and heterogeneity. However, the use of the Smart Decision Support System can boost research and development for innovating smart farm systems that are compatible with diverse crops, therefore, Republic of Korea needs to explore more on expanding the scope of their smart farming system (Youm et al. 2022). The development of Republic of Korea’s smart farm still faces other challenges including global economy incorporation, population crisis which decreased the number of dedicated livestock farming community, ageing population, climatic changes and growing gap among rural and urban places, infectious.

Republic of Uganda encounter several challenges that include poor infrastructure lowers the effectiveness of information and communication technologies integration in the farming system, incompatibility between smart farm components and agricultural data analysis, lack of strategic plan on smart farm development and farmer-driven/centered approaches for smart farms, and the high initial cost of establishing and managing smart farming systems, cost-intensiveness of smart farm systems due to costly machinery used on the farm incurs high expenses in terms of purchasing, transporting, and maintaining (Woelcke 2006). Smart farm development depends on technological advancement. Without IoT, Cloud computing, and sensors, among other smart farm components, an agricultural system cannot be transformed into a self-automated system. This calls for technological development in Republic of Uganda to support the advancement of smart farming solution. In addition, smart farm development in Republic of Uganda faces the challenge of institutional rivalry, where the mandates of agricultural development are intermixed within different institutions, this affects the delivery of agricultural services. This is because the country lacks a clear roadmap and or framework for smart farming. However, according to Monica et al. (2022), South Africa has used specialized parastatals to enhance the development a diversity of interventions practiced under climate-smart agriculture approach. Specialized parastatals have registered success in the development of climate smart agriculture. This initiative could be extended and integrated in the plans and development of smart farming solutions in Republic of Uganda, where a specialized institution can be established to spearhead smart farming systems development through research and development and coming up with a smart farm development plan and framework, among other strategies. In addition, Monica et al. (2022) cited lack of knowledge among the main challenge limiting adapting to smart farming in Republic of Uganda. Farmers that purchase agricultural machinery have presented the need for higher level of knowledge to incorporate the technology. Rural farmers in Republic of Uganda still have low level of education, which limits adaptation to the integration of information and communication technologies in agriculture, as compared to the developed Republic of Korean rural areas. By 1962, 100% of Republic of Korea’s people had attained primary level education, 40.2 had attained middle school while 22.2 had attained high school. By 2005, the rate had increased with 94.6% attaining middle class and 91.0 attaining high school. The level of education is directly linked to the use, sharing, adaptation and distribution of innovations (Christiansen and Kim 2023), therefore, the high education level of Republic of Koreans acts as a factor to sustaining the smart farm system since mart farms work on the basis of agricultural data collected using sensing equipment, such as the IoT, robots, and AI, which requires knowledge and skills to understand and handle the tools effectively and suggested the need to establish an extension system that can enhance knowledge flow to rural farmers.

Mapiye et al. (2021) and Park and Lee (2019) highlight that rural farmers in both Republic of Korea and Republic of Uganda either face difficulties or are not yet interested in developing smart farms because of low income, which limits their capacity to establish smart farm solutions in addition to limiting their knowledge of the information and communication technologies as indicated in Fig. 14. These difficulties have reduced the interest of farmers in embracing the modernization of their farming systems. On the other hand, rural farmers may not readily have access to all the capital required to establish a feasible smart farm that is self-automated and suggest the need for a design and implementation of an economic social ecosystem that can support rural farmers in establishing the smart farms. While Republic of Korea is being established as a global leader in technology development that encompasses smart farming, capitalizing on international partnerships for smart farm development (Kim et al. 2015), Republic of Uganda is taking slow steps in prioritizing smart farm solutions in its long-term plans, following the resource constraint challenges that the country is facing.

Figure 14. Approaches, similarities and Challenges behind smart farming solution in Republic of Korea and Republic of Uganda

This review provides an overview of smart-farm development in Republic of Korea and Republic of Uganda. Information from Republic of Korea and Republic of Uganda on available agricultural resources, smart-farm approaches and frameworks, policies, challenges to sustainable farming systems, and potential positive and negative externalities associated with smart-farm development have been discussed herein. Agricultural development through technological improvements and farm digitalization is gradually taking shape, leading to the transformation of farming systems in Republic of Korea and Republic of Uganda. Both countries have similar objectives and challenges in the pursuit of smart farm solutions. The similar objectives include: Ensuring food security, sustainable farming systems, and economic stability, whereas the similar challenges include climatic changes and the rural-urban movement of farmers. Additionally, both countries face distinct challenges and limitations in the development of smart farming systems. However, the two countries employ different approaches to achieve their desired objectives and goals. These approaches are dictated by progress in technological infrastructure, government efforts to develop smart farms, cultural farming practices, and the socioeconomic context of each country.

In Republic of Korea, agriculture accounts for 66% of the country’s water usage, with more than 40% of cultivated area are irrigated, with agriculture accounting for half of the country’s water usage (Nam et al. 2017). Republic of Korea’s emphasis on reducing exposure to climate risks is further supported by its improved access to irrigation systems. Though the water quality challenge remain prominent in Republic of Korea. The mechanism for controlling water supply and analyzing water quality to enhance proper smart farm management is indicated in the study published by (Maduranga and Ruvan 2020). This aids the development of an intelligent system that supports the supply of quality water in smart farms. The Republic of Uganda possess a substantial amount of agricultural land, covering 71.8% of its territory, whereas Republic of Korea’s agricultural land constitutes approximately 20% of its total land area (Wolf 1962). In Republic of Uganda, the majority of farmers typically own an average land size of 1.3 ha. This therefore informs on why farmers in Republic of Uganda embrace the use of components of smart farming systems, eg, irrigation systems and ignoring other components, since the investment cost (establishment and maintenance) of establishing a holistic, fully equipped smart farm on large land is high (Farooq et al. 2019). Where as in Republic of Korea, over 70% of farmers possess less than 1 ha of land. Having smaller land holdings requires substantial initial investments to achieve high productivity. In this case, The limited land ownership can potentially result in food shortages, this has contributed to Republic of Korea’s efforts to invest in the process of developing smart farm systems to ensure that the small land is efficiently and effectively utilized. In addition to available arable land, each country has a specific set of crops. Republic of Uganda’s major crops include bananas, corn (maize), cassava, and beans, and livestock managed in Republic of Uganda include cattle, goats, poultry rabbits, bee keeping and fisheries, whereas, Republic of Korea’s major crops include rice, barley, apples, and vegetables, and livestock managed in Republic of Korea include; Cattle, Pigs, Poultry and Rabbits respectively. The major crops distributed between the two countries specify their contributions towards the food security and economic development of each country.

Agriculture contributed 23.7% to Republic of Uganda’s Gross domestic product in 2021/22. More than 65% of the Republic of Ugandan working population is employed in agriculture, with more than 81% of households engaged in agriculture. In Republic of Korea, agriculture’s contribution to the Gross domestic product was 2.21% in 2011; by 2021, the contribution had dropped to 1.79% (Nasrullah et al. 2021). The economic significance of agriculture, particularly its role in poverty reduction, ensuring food security, maintaining stability, and its contribution to the Gross domestic product. That shows the potential of smart farming to enhance agricultural productivity, promote social equity, and contribute to environmental sustainability through research and development. In this context, Republic of Korea is actively transforming its agricultural production to leverage the contribution of smart farming systems on agricultural sustainability. Whereas, most Republic of Ugandan farmers depend on rain-fed agriculture, with less than 1% of households having access to irrigation, this exposes farming systems to climate risks. The challenge of low irrigation distribution hinders the development of smart farms in the country. Republic of Uganda’s water resources are managed by Ministry of Water and Environment and works hand in hand with Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries to promote irrigation in farming systems. Rain-dependent agriculture limits the long-term sustainability of production systems, considering climate change.

Both countries have put in efforts towards the development of smart farms. Republic of Uganda has incorporated the need to develop a technology based agriculture in their plans. Republic of Uganda’s Vison 2040 and Republic of Uganda’s National Development Plan III (FY 2020/21-2024/25) present the plan for Integration of smart farming technologies in transforming from subsistence farming systems to commercial farming systems through improved agricultural management and efficient resource utilization (Koutridi and Christopoulou 2023). In addition to plans, Republic of Uganda has come up with several policies that support smart farm development as indicated. However, the country lacks a streamlined national plan that would guide smart farming systems development. Distinct smart farming interventions motivated by competing private sector, NGOs, and government institutions (Universities and Research centers) have led to high-tech solutions that are evolving the smart farming concept. Farmers in Republic of Uganda are integrating the use of application in their farms by the use of smart phones and WiFi for different communications and access to required data. The use of smart phone is majorly common in market access, connection to agro-inputs and weather prediction (Dayoub et al. 2021). Republic of Korea has put in extensive efforts to evolve smart farming concept. Republic of Korea’s approach and strategy for smart farming brings forward a holistic concept that integrates different technologies to enhance a self-optimized farming system (Hwang and Lee 2015). Through Rural Development Administration, Republic of Korea launched a Digital Agriculture Basic Plan that would see the acceleration of digital in agriculture. The 10 tasked 5 years agricultural digitalization plan is integrated in the 2021-2025 development plan. The 10 tasks under this plan include: big data, artificial intelligence, robot/autonomous driving, drone/satellite and metaverse/digital twin. The tasks are divided into three major areas: 1) formation of agricultural data ecosystem, 2) digitalized crop and livestock management technologies and 3) digitalized farming technologies that enhance distribution and consumption agricultural products and polices supported by agricultural digital technologies (O’Shaughnessy et al. 2021).

Several challenges affecting agricultural production in the two countries were identified. Climatic changes was acknowledged as a major challenge affecting agricultural production systems of the two countries, as observed in (Fig. 14). The effect of climate change has affected both crop and livestock management. In the cattle corridor e.g. Karamoja areas of North Eastern Uganda where livestock management is the prominent source of food, the effect of climate change has led to food insecurity. Prolonged drought that leads to water scarcity and limited pasture has been associated to climate change (Mubiru 2010). RUHANGAWEBARE (2010) indicates the increasing number of animals in Republic of Uganda rather than productivity. This is increases the level of greenhouse gas emission, that contributes to climate change. Though the use of smart farming to address the emission of greenhouse gas in Livestock production has been discussed, there is need for more research in the subject. Republic of Uganda’s additional challenges to agricultural development include low levels of awareness and access to associated technologies, low irrigation coverage among farmers, and poor access to agri-based information, agricultural extension, financial support, advisory services on agriculture and so on, which hinder smart farming solutions development. Many more lessons can be obtained from how Republic of Korea is managing the agricultural transformation. In Republic of Korea, the aging farming community affects agricultural development as youths leave agricultural work for urban roles. The problem of the aging population has become apparent in agricultural production, as the elderly population rate of agricultural managers increased from 33.7% to 46.5% between 2011 and 2019. Hence, more than 46% of all Republic of Korean farmers are aged 65 years or older (Cho and Roberts 2023). The use of smart farms optimizes the available labor and it is regarded as an approach that can bring back the young generation to actively participate in agriculture (Ahaibwe et al. 2013). Therebefore, the increasing trend of youth in Republic of Uganda leaving agricultural work and for other roles in urban center could be engaged in smart farming system as an alternative to encourage them (youth) to stay involved in the value chain of agricultural production.

Between the year of 2013 and 2017, Republic of Uganda increased in crop production by 431,161 hectares. the increase triggered encroachment of natural resources like rain forest biome, wetland and rangelands, this exposed the fragile ecosystems to environmental calamities like landslides, floods and drought. The above developments contribute towards climate change, hence, contradicting the efforts employed towards achieving Sustainable Development Goal 13 (Climate action). On the other hand, Republic of Uganda has been engaged into prioritizing the establishment of plans and strategies that enhance environmental conservation and ecological networking. To ensure a sustainable interaction between social, economics, and environmental conservation for sustainable agricultural development and food security, Republic of Uganda established sustainable development plans that enable community cope with and reduce the negative impact of community interventions on environments while ensuring sustainable food production (Waaswa and Satognon 2020). Therefore, the revolution in agriculture over time through smart farming has resulted in several benefits for agricultural operations in both countries. Compared with traditional farming systems, increased levels of precision and accuracy have been registered on smart farms. One example is the application of fertilizers and pesticides in the right place. Smart farms have also led to increased work efficiency and improved efficiency and management of resources including fuel, water, energy, fertilizers, and pesticides, thereby leading to reduced production costs, data-driven automated agricultural systems optimizing crop yields, reduced production losses, and increased productivity. Smart farming has simplified agricultural tasks, drawing a higher level of interest from the younger generation. This newfound attraction has provided them with a platform to introduce innovations and technologies that enhance smart farming systems, actively benefiting from these solutions (Jansuwan and Zander 2021).

Neither country has established and Standardized practices for data management and system integration. Although the two countries have played varied roles in digitalizing agriculture, none of the two countries has significantly formulated policies regarding data governance. With the growing demand for and expectations of digitalized farming, which involves the use of the IoT, cloud computing, wireless sensors, and other technologies to enhance the collection of a range of production data (Anidu and Dara 2021), and the fact that smart farming solutions involve the partnership of different entities to ensure a successful holistic approach to the smart farm system, the call for establishing clear data governance policies is critical to both countries. Data collected in a smart farm production system is a valuable resource used in making objective and production based decisions. However, Amiri-Zarandi et al. (2022) noted the absence of standardized data management system contributing to low flourishment of smart farming systems. To guarantee full incorporation, release, and usage of agricultural data on farm, a platform and approach entailing six requirements, that is reliability, scalability, operability, real-time data processing, end-to-end security and privacy, and scandalized regulations and policies should be used in building an active, consistent and vigorous smart farming system. Fig. 15 presents a proposed roadmap on data security and privacy in smart farming.

Figure 15. Proposed Data Security and Privacy in Smart Farms

As digitalization of agriculture demonstrates the provision of a realistic solution to agricultural challenges such as food insecurity, climate change, and labor shortages, many countries have embraced smart farming solutions as a way to go, since the system can ensure a more resilient and sustainable agricultural system. Beyond Republic of Korea and Republic of Uganda, many other countries are actively involved in the development of smart farming systems, including Brazil, Netherlands, China, the USA, Iceland, New Zealand, Australia, Norway, and Finland (Pivoto et al. 2018). A number of drivers to adopting smart farming systems in different countries (European countries, including France, Germany, Greece, the Netherlands, Serbia, Spain, and the UK) are indicated in a cross-country study conducted by Sulaiman et al. (2022). However, Smidt and Jokonya (2022) indicates the need for Africa to alter and expand their agricultural capacity and minimize environmental impact. It as well indicates that factors limiting Africa from adapting to smart farming systems include; low scale up of technologies, inefficient farm to market links with food supply chain and poor access to financial resources. Therefore, farming systems must cope with the transition of nature and generations to meet the changing needs of the planet and the expectations of different stakeholders involved in agricultural value chains in the agricultural sector and other sectors (Atkinson and McKinlay 1997).

Limitations and operational recommendations in smart farming

After analyzing the smart farm progress, challenges, limitations and difficulties in Republic of Korea and Republic of Uganda, below is a summarized list of a few insights that can be integrated into the already available smart farm progress in the two countries to contribute towards the efficiency of adoption to smart farming solutions as a way of enhancing agricultural sustainability, ecological stability, environmental management and contributing to Sustainable Development Goals.

Better power management strategy: The cost of power management system in the smart farm is high, which calls for increase in energy efficiency. Installation of energy storage solutions under smart farms would decrease renewable energy intermittency in the production system, this calls for strategies that maximize the benefit of using battery energy storage, therefore, implementing a power management strategies that effectively integrate renewable energy and storage elements, strategies that control the current charging methods of batteries, delivered by a photovoltaic source, leading to precise current regulation and high efficient and effective power management system is of great importance in the smart farming systems. Dkhili et al. (2020) recommends the best power management strategy that is implemented in the communication transmission through the ac powerlines in the smart farm and provides a power rationalization in the event of insufficient energy supply from photovoltaic and battery rapport.

Storage standardization: Integrating the development of smart agri-logistic and smart food standardization helps in managing a complete food system using smart farm concept, this helps to reduce food wastage. Smart farm technologies such as IoT provides the capacity to control real time food quality information, that is eventually used in adopting a logistic activity that maintains the required standards of food quality in the smart farm system (Verdouw et al. 2019).

Use modular IOT hardware architecture: The objective of Smart farm modular IoT is to enlighten the running of the general farm in an extremely customized way. It also supports the collection of environmental data in relation to plant growth over a period of three months (Yoon et al. 2018).

Consider compatibility with legacy infrastructure: Consider the social technical factors in the establishment of smart farms. This helps in integrating in farmer’s prevailing farm structures such as particular equipment, soft wares, field machines, available (easy to get) input, among others (Jakku et al. 2019).

Consider scalability and robustness of devices: An integration of different devices are employed in the smart farm system to increase its efficiency. Therefore, much consideration could be put on scalability, security and robustness of the devices to enhance proper data synchronization and data reliability (Rahman et al. 2020).

Security in smart farm system: Security problems is one of the major challenges in integrating IOT in agricultural system. Therefore, need for installation of security system smart farms through devices and data information system is evident (Saha et al. 2021). Fig. 16 indicates a proposed roadmap for data security.

Figure 16. Summarized roadmap of achieving sustainable agricultural system through smart farming

Advance strength for field operations: Smart farm devices should be resilient to variations in temperature, soil moisture, humidity, carbon dioxide, and general seasonal changes (Rajak et al. 2023).

User-centered design: One of the major aims of smart farm is to reduce labor in the farming system. Therefore, the smart farm system should call for no or limited requirement for human maintenance during its function. To ensure its efficiency, the communication network of smart farm should be well intelligent so as the system one failure in some part of system e.g. node occurs. In addition, installation and management of IOT nodes in the smart farm system should be easy and simple to use (Navarro et al. 2020).

Employ environmentally sustainable practices: Consider employing practices that reduce the environmental impact and lead to net zero. Since the smart farm system employs fertilizers and insecticides that may have negative impact to environment, the use of “direct graph approach” for mapping networks among agriculture interrelated environmental effects and possible constraints help to check the relationship between sustainable agriculture and sustainable environment, and the use of “damage-cost method” (or calculating the cost of reducing on-farm environmental impact, could ensure mitigation practices of sustainable agricultural practices (Ullah et al. 2021).

Application of the above list of recommendations and insights will ensure the durability of the smart farms, ensuring sustainable resource utilization hence sustaining agricultural production and food security.

The impetus for agricultural sustainability and food security systems is technological innovation, driven by the escalating global challenges of a growing population, climate change, environmental challenges and a decreasing agricultural labor force. These factors are expected to contribute to worldwide reduction in natural resources, ecological imbalance, food insecurity, hunger, and these may therefore impede progress towards achieving sustainable development goals. Through the automation of agriculture, also known as smart farming, the challenges mentioned above are expected to be mitigated. Therefore, this study illustrates the similarities and differences in agricultural development between The Republic of Uganda and Republic of Korea, describing the available resources that support agricultural development, the efforts capitalized on by the two countries towards smart farming solutions, and factors hindering the sustainable farming systems of the two countries. These two countries have similar goals, objectives, and drivers for smart farming solutions, with climate change being one of the biggest challenges affecting their agricultural sector. The reason underlying the pursuit for smart-farming solutions in both countries is sustainable agricultural production. However, both countries demonstrate distinct approaches to the development of smart farms, primarily designed by the employed equipment and technologies, available plans and policies for smart farm development, technology infrastructure, different farm sizes, management practices of crops and livestock, partnerships developed on smart farms, mechanisms on irrigation and water management, data analysis and decision support, and the socioeconomic implications of smart farms in each country. Therefore, both countries have the potential to boost a significant outcome from investing in smart farm solutions, which will lead to food security, sustainable farming systems, and improved social wellbeing. This review describes the progress of smart farming solution, registered successes, encountered challenges, failures and limitation of implementation smart farming solutions in the two countries.

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KH conceptualized the review article, performed all the literature search based on the methodology, conducted data analysis, and wrote the original draft of the article. RG reviewed and edited the manuscript after due conceptualization of the review. YB reviewed and edited the manuscript. SY reviewed and edited the manuscript. ER reviewed and edited the manuscript. DO reviewed and edited the manuscript. RK reviewed and edited the manuscript. OC reviewed and edited the manuscript. KOD reviewed and edited the manuscript. YK supervised the whole research work, reviewed and edited the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

This work was supported by Grants from the Development of Sustainable Application for Standard Herbal Resources (KSN1822320). Additionally, its work was also supported by Establishment of Smart Farm Technology Distribution Policy Study for Capacity Enhancement about Functional Plant Resources Production and Processing in Republic of Uganda (ERT2311200) Grants from Korea Rural Economic Institute (KREI).

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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The authors consent to participate in the article.

All authors whose names appear on the submission approved the version to be published and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.